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Venezuela

Armando Torres-Lezama 

Introduction

 

Venezuela is a South American country with 912 050 km² and 26.58 millions inhabitants (2005); urban population has been steadily increasing (87% in 2000) (INE, online).   Population annual growth rate was 2.3 percent during the 1990s; whereas, the GDP only grew by one percent during the 1980-2000 period (FAO, 2004, online).

The country is roughly divided in three  regions: a) the coastal and mountain region, which comprises approximately 20 percent of the total land area but supports the majorityof the population (85%); b) the flat alluvial region of the Orinoco River plains, which encompasses about one third of the country;  and c) the Guayana region (Bolívar and Amazonas states) which is the southern half of the national territory and still very sparsely populated  The climate is quite different across to the country as illustrated in http://www.igvsb.gov.ve/site2006/imagenes/mapas/clima.jpg. 

Venezuela is one of the ten countries with the largest tropical forest area in the world; within South America is rated fifth (WRI, 2001). In 2000, its natural forest cover was estimated in 43.78 millions of hectares (WRI, Earthtrends, online), 90 percent is located in the Guayana region. The predominant forest type is the lowland evergreen moist forest, followed by the montane forests, seasonal evergreen and deciduous (dry) and swamp forests. Other types of forests, which count with more limited areas but are of great importance in terms of environmental services and biological diversity, are the riparian forests and mangroves.  Further details can be found in Harcourt and Sayer (1996) and Aguilera et al. (2003). A simplified version of Huber and Alarcón’s vegetation map (1988) is shown in http://www.igvsb.gov.ve/site2006/imagenes/mapas/vegetacion.jpg.  
 

Trends in forest retention 

 

Due to the lack of updated and reliable information at a national level, it is difficult to determine the country's forest size and the changes in forest cover.  From 1950 to 1988 more than 6 million hectares of forests were lost (Veillon, 1976; Catalán, 1992). Moreover, it is known that in the last years, the country's economic crisis and socio-political situation have accentuated the pressure over Guayana's forests (cf. GFW-VEN, 2002).
 

The country has a complex “system” of natural protected areas (NPA) (see IUCN, 1992). These NPA were designated as Áreas Bajo Régimen de Administración Especial – ABRAE (Areas under Special Administration).  As of August 2001, 262 ABRAE had been established; representing approximately 46% of the national territory and 72% of this surface was covered by forests (see Bevilacqua, 2003). The reported high percentage of areas protected by law, however, it says little about the quality of NPA management. In fact, many weaknesses and deficiencies in NPA management have been pointed out, such as ABRAE overlapping and insufficient or controversial zoning plans, but see Berroterán (2003).
 

Since 1950, the national government reserved 16,425,121 ha of public land for timber production as Permanent Forest Estates (PFE) (cf.  MARN, 2001). It is estimated that PFE have suffered a forest loss of 2 to 3 millions hectares.  The inequality between agricultural land owners and those who engage in illegal agrarian colonization has had a strong effect on the loss of PFE in the country’s western plains (cf. Rojas-López, 1993; Delayahe, 2001). The proposed Plan Nacional de Desarrollo Forestal   (Forestry Development National Plan) estimates that only 5 millions ha of the PFE (30.44%) may be subject to management for sustainable production of timber, palm heart, palm fibres and other plants and diverse products (MPD, 2002).
 

Natural Forest Management

 

Venezuela is one of the Tropical America’s countries with the longest continuous effort towards natural forest management (NFM) under long term contracts. The first concessions were awarded in 1970. By 1992, almost 3.2 millions ha had been allocated in more than 30 forest management units (see Centeno, 1995); the higher proportion was located in the Imataca Forest Reserve (Guayana region). In 1995, the national government planned the rising of the area under forest concession to 10 million hectares in five years. Nevertheless, the country’s adoption of structural adjustment policies and rising criticisms to forest management strategies prevented this to happen. On the contrary, official information reveals that by 2000 this surface had diminished to 1.89 million ha and only 12 management units were active (MARN, 2002).
 

National legislation establishes few prescriptions to reduce the environmental impact caused by logging activities. Generally, operations remove almost all commercial trees above the minimum felling diameter.  Furthermore, a cutting cycle of 30 years has been adopted by most logging concessionaires. Subsequently, it became evident that logging practices were not consistent with the recovery process of the forests and these started to lose commercial value (Torres-Lezama et al., 1998;  Kammesheidt et al., 2001).  
 

Since 1999, the national government is promoting a social component, as part of the National Forestry Policy (cf. Azuaje, online). This Community Forest Management Policy (MARN, 2002) was implemented in the western plains forest reserves; results, however, reveal distressing outcomes.
 

Available statistics for non-timber forest products (NTFP) are still more scarce than for timber products. Palm heart extracted from palma manaca  (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) stands out among the NTFP. This highly appreciated food product is mainly harvested in the swamp forests of the Orinoco Delta., where more than 160,000 ha have been granted in long-term concessions since the 1980s. Other plant species provide fibres, oils, gums, fuel wood and vegetal charcoal.  For further details, see GFW-VEN (2002).
 

Plantation forestry

 
Large scale plantations were initiated by the national public sector in the late 1960s.  By 1999, total forest plantation accumulated area is reported as 740.000 ha (MARN, 2001). Caribbean pine plantation (Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis Barrett & golfari) accounts for the largest share (533,018 ha). Most of it was established in the savannah of the eastern plains, just to the north of the Orinoco River, comprising one of the largest continuous plantation programmes in the tropical world. 
 

Approximately 75 percent of these pine plantations are under the administration of   CVG-Proforca, a subsidiary  forestry company of the Corporación Venezolana de Guayana (CVG), the second largest public corporation in Venezuela, after the oil company PDVSA. In contrast, the international company Terranova de Venezuela S.A. (TDV) is managing 115,600 ha.
 

Similarly, Smurfit-Cartón de Venezuela, the second largest international forest company, the company reported 22,300 ha (MARN, 2001), mainly planted with Eucalyptus spp., Pinus caribaea  and Gmelina arborea. Stand yields of these monocultures, located in better soils, are 3 – 10 times higher than eastern pine plantations.

In the Caribbean pine monocultures, microclimatic characteristics, soil quality and probably El Niño Southern Oscillation confer a high vulnerability to the system (see Cedeño et al., 2001; Torres-Lezama et al., 2001). Tree mortality may cause an important reduction in profit levels and may lower the quantity and quality of raw material supply which will in turn translate into market loss.
 

On the other hand, in deforested areas of the western plains,   the introduced species teak (Tectona grandis L. f.)  has adapted very well and is highly productive (Torres-Lezama, 1982; Kammesheidt et al., 2001).
 

In Venezuela, establishment, maintenance and harvesting of forest plantations is reported to generate 13.600 direct jobs and 25.000 indirect jobs (González et al., 2003).   However, the Ley de Tierras y Desarrollo Agrario –LTDA- (Law of Lands and Agrarian Development) (Venezuela, 2002) which sets VII and VIII land use classes aside for this purpose,  may be restricting industrial forest plantation in Venezuela.
 

TDV has made considerable efforts towards sustainable management of its plantations, and it has obtained in 2003 the certification of 139,650 ha from the SmartWood program, under the Forest Stewarship Council (FSC) System (see Smartwood Program, online).

Forestry industry

Given that Venezuela’s economy strongly depends on the oil sector, forestry development is not a priority (FAO, 2004, on line). In 2000, the oil sector generated 27% of the GDP (BCV, online). In contrast, during the period of 1995-99 forest activities hardly corresponded to an average 1.1% of GDP.  Consequently, this sector is not highly competitive and profitable (see Monitor, 1997; ONU 2002, online).
 

Although around US$ 340,700,000 have been invested in the establishment of Venezuelan forest plantations during the last three decades (see González et al., 2003), in general, either the forest industry has received little government attention or forest policies have been inadequate. 
 

Venezuela is a net importer of forest products. The highest imports are pulp and paper -which are mainly used for newspaper and packaging for food products and industrial cards-, sawn wood and particle boards.  However, pulp and paper imports declined throughout the 1990s and the present decade (Apropaca, online).
 

National round wood production is mostly oriented towards the mechanics industry.  During the 1990s national sawn wood production shows sharp fluctuations and hardly exceeded 260,000 m³ in its best year (MARN, 2001). National consumption of veneer and plywood is limited and concentrated in furniture and construction activities (Centeno, 1995). Nonetheless, it is worth mentioning that TDV has recently built an industrial  complex with the capacity to process about 850,000 m³ of round wood (See Smartwood Program, online).
 

Paper consumption per capita has sharply decreased from 46 kg in 1983 to less than 30 kg in 2000 (see Centeno, 1995; WRI,Earthtrends, online). This value is slightly lower than the South American average (32 kg) and well below the world’s mean (54 kg).

Concluding remarks 

Venezuela has an important forest resource base and great potential for the development of forest plantations. Serious efforts, however, should be made to attend existing high deforestation rates, deficient planning and management of natural forests, and the vulnerability of Caribbean pine ecosystems. Moreover, it is necessary, to pay more attention on sustainable development, national and international cooperation, global and intersectorial approaches, legal and institutional reforms and capacity building. 
 

The participation of local communities seems essential to the attainment of sustainable forest management. However, community forest management must be developed in a professional and responsible manner, in order to avoid the destruction of forest resources.
 

Finally, NTFP and forest environmental services should be considered if we want to maximize the benefits. With the formulation of the “Biological Diversity National Strategy”, the country has begun to value and measure the economic importance of natural forest biodiversity. Similarly, some projects on valuation of watershed protection services and carbon sequestration are under way.

References

 
Aguilera, M., Azócar A. and E. González-Jiménez, Editors. Biodiversidad en Venezuela. Caracas: Fundación Polar. 2003.
APROPACA, Asociación Venezolana de Productores de Pulpa, Papel y Cartón http://www.apropaca.com.ve/paginas/contenido/continfoestadistica.htm#clasifica. (18 April 2006)

Azuaje, J.I. “Manejo Forestal en Venezuela. Informe de Avance del Proyecto de FAO Información y Análisis para el Manejo Forestal Sostenible: integrando esfuerzos nacionales e internacionales en 13 países tropicales en América latina”. (GCP/RLA/133/EC). Santiago, Chile. 2001.. Available in http://www.rlc.fao.org/proyecto/rla133ec/MF-pdf/MF%20Ven.PDF. (20 April 2006)

BCV, Banco Central de Venezuela. “Indicadores económicos”. http://www.bcv.org.ve. (12 April 2006)

Berroterán, J.L. Editor.  Reserva Forestal Imataca: Ecología y bases técnicas para el ordenamiento territorial. Caracas: Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales- Universidad Central de Venezuela.2003.

Bevilacqua, M. “Áreas protegidas y conservación de la diversidad biológica”.  In Biodiversidad en Venezuela. Eds. M. Aguilera, A. Azócar and A. Gonzáles-Jiménez. Caracas: Fundación Polar.  2003.

Catalán, A. “El proceso de deforestación en Venezuela entre 1975-1988”.  Revista Ambiente 49 (1992):1-12. Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables, Caracas.

Cedeño L.,Carrero, C., Franco, W.  and A.Torres-Lezama. “Sphaeropsis sapinea asociado con quema del cogollo, muerte regresiva y cáncer en troncos, ramas y raíces del pino caribe en Venezuela.” Interciencia, 2001(26)5: 210-215.

Centeno, J.C. Estrategia para el Desarrollo Forestal en Venezuela. Caracas: Fondo Nacional de Investigación Forestal. 1995

Delahaye, O. Políticas de tierras de Venezuela en el siglo XX. Caracas: Fondo Editorial Tropykos. 2001.
FAO. “Socio-economic trends and outlook in Latin America: Implications for the forestry sector to 2020.”  2004. Available in http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/J2459E/j2459e01.htm.

GFW-VEN. The State of Venezuela's Forest: A case study of the Guayana Region. Caracas: Global Forest Watch, Venezuelan Chapter-WRI-Fundación Polar. 2002. 

González, R.; Plonczak, M. and J. Stock.  Plantaciones forestales e industrias asociadas en Venezuela - Aspectos Socio-económicos. XII World Forestry Congress Proceedings. Québec, Canadá.  2003.

Harcourt, C.S. and J.A. Sayer. Editors. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forest: The Americas. New York:IUCN. 1996.

Huber, O. and C.  Alarcón. Mapa de vegetación de Venezuela. Caracas: MARN. 1988.

INE, Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Statistics National Institute). “Población”.http://www.ine.gob.ve/poblacion/distribucion.asp. (19 April 2006)

IUCN. Protected areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 4: Neoarctic and Neotropical. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K: IUCN.  1992.

Kammesheidt, L., Torres-Lezama, A., Franco, W, and M. Plonczak. History of logging and silvicultural treatments in the western Venezuela plain forests and the prospect for sustainable forest management. Forest Ecology and Management 148 (2001): 1-20.

MARN. Boletín Estadístico Forestal Nº 3-Año 2000. Caracas: Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales, Dirección General Sectorial del Recurso Forestal, Venezuela. 2001.

MARN. Política Nacional de Bosques.  Caracas: Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales, Dirección General Sectorial del Recurso Forestal., Venezuela.2002.

MPD. Plan Nacional de Desarrollo Forestal (propuesta). Caracas: Ministerio de Planificación y Desarrollo, Venezuela. 2002.
Monitor. La Cadena Forestal Venezolana en la Encrucijada: Oportunidades para Construir Competitividad. Informe Final. Caracas: Monitor Company. 1997

ONU. Cumbre de Johannesburgo 2002. Reseña de  Venezuela. http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/wssd/venezuela.pdf. (15 April 2006)

Rojas-López, J. La colonización agraria de las reservas forestales: ¿Un proceso sin solución? Cuadernos Geográficos Nº 10. Mérida, Venezuela, Universidad de Los Andes, 1993.

Smartwood Program.  2003. Resumen Público de Certificación de Terranova de Venezuela S.A. www.smartwood.org/reports/pdfs/terranova.pdf.

Terranova de Venezuela. http://www.terranova.com/esp/main_home.htm.

Torres-Lezama, A. Influencia del sitio y la espesura en el crecimiento de plantaciones experimentales de Teca (Tectona grandis L.f.) en Caparo, Venezuela. Mérida: Universidad de Los Andes. 1982. 

Torres-Lezama, A., M. Díaz, A. Ramírez, R.  Andressen, L.  Lugo, C. Carrero  and L.  Cedeño. “Natural hazards assessment and management in Caribbean pine plantations of eastern Venezuela.” In  The Economics of Natural Hazards in Forestry. Solsona: Padua University Press. 2001. pp: 21-30.

Torres-Lezama, A., H. Ramírez, and R. Baldoceda. “Predicción de la respuesta de un bosque tropical venezolano a diferentes estrategias de manejo.” In Memorias del Simposio Internacional Posibilidades de Manejo Forestal Sostenible en América Tropical, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia. 1998. pp: 234-240.

Veillon, J.P. Las deforestaciones en los llanos occidentales de Venezuela desde 1950 hasta 1975. In  Conservación de los Bosques Húmedos de Venezuela. Eds. L.S.Hamilton, J, Steyermark, J.P. Veillon and E.Mondolfi, E. Caracas:  Sierra Club. 1976.

Venezuela. Ley de Tierras y Desarrollo Agrario. Gaceta Oficial No. 37.323 de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela (13-11-2001).
Caracas. 2001.

WRI.  World Resources Report.  Washington D.C.: World Resource Institute. 2001.

WRI. Earthtrends:  Environmental Information. “Country Profiles: Venezuela; forests, grasslands and dry lands.”  http://earthtrends.wri.org/ pdf-library/country_profiles/for_cou_862.pdf  (12 April  2006).

Entry Submitted: August 2006

Entry Posted: 2 April 2007

Entry Last Revised by Editor: 22 April 2007