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Forest Species and Stand Types of Chile

 Pablo J. Donoso and Claudio Donoso
Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forest Sciences,
 Universidad Austral de Chile

 
Introduction
 
Chile is geographically known for its shape, a narrow (average 150 km) and long (4,200 km) strip from latitude 18° to 56° S Lat., facing the Pacific Ocean to the west, with the world driest desert in the northern Atacama Region, Mediterranean scrub and open forests at mid-latitudes, rainforests in the south, and Patagonian steppe in the extreme south-east. The natural limits of Chile greatly isolate it and prevent invasions from other forests in the continent. For these reasons, Chilean forests, which include Mediterranean forests (32°-38°30’°S) and Temperate Rainforest (38°30’ to 56°S), can be considered as a biogeographical island (Donoso, 1993; Armesto et al. 1995; Armesto et al., 1998; Feisenger, 1998).
 
The temperate rainforests of Chile and the smaller area of these forests in Argentina comprise the second largest area of Evergreen Coastal Temperate Rainforests in the world, after those in the west coast of North America (Donoso, 1993; Ecotrust and Conservation International, 1993; Veblen and Alaback, 1995), and the major continuous area of temperate broad-leaved forests in the world. Characteristically, these forests are dominated by Nothofagus species (Donoso, 1996; Veblen et al., 1996), the genus with greater numbers of trees in Chile. Chilean forests cover and area of 13.4 million ha, of which six million hectares are mature and old-growth forests, and 3.5 million hectares are secondary forests (CONAF-CONAMA, 1999). Before arrival of Spaniards, in the 16^th century, most of the central depression and Cordilleras south of 32° were covered by forests. Most native forests in the central depression and the foothills of the Coastal and Andean from 32° to 42°S is now used for agriculture, cattle-raising, vineyards, or plantations of exotic species.
 
Some general characteristics of Chilean forests include (Armesto et al., 1995):

For these reasons, together with the fact that most of the region of Mediterranean and Valdivian Rainforests is highly populated, south-central Chilean forests have been classified as one of the world’s 25 Biodiversity Hotspots (Cincotta et al., 2000; Myers et al., 2000), as well as one of the regions with the most threatened forest ecosystems in the world (Olson and Dinerstein, 1998).
 
General Classifications of Chilean Temperate Forests

Chilean forests are in the South Temperate Zone, with southern oceanic and subantartic forests (Barnes et al., 1999). Within this zone, Mediterranean forests (32°30’ to 38°30’S) are dominated by sclerophyllous species (species with a hard, leathery, or waxy surface that decrease water loss) and have a relatively low rainfall concentrated during winter months. Temperate rainforests (from 38°30’ to the south) have a rainfall greater than 1,000 mm per year, and have a climate with relatively cool summer temperatures, mild winters, and abundant moisture throughout the year (Veblen et al., 1983; Veblen and Alaback, 1995).
 
From a phytogeographical perspective, Chilean temperate rainforests have been subdivided into three major regions (Veblen et al., 1983; Veblen and Alaback, 1995):
1. The Valdivian Rainforests , from 37°45’ to 43°30’S lat.
2. The North Patagonian Rainforests, from 43°20’ to 47°30’ S lat.
3. The Magellanic Rainforests, south of 47°20’ lat.
 
This classification is based on the gradual decline in species richness from north to south. North of the Valdivian rainforests, the Mediterranean forests have as many tree species as the North Patagonic rainforests, but greater number of shrub species (Table 1). The peak number of trees along the latitudinal variations in Chilean forests occurs between 40° and 43°S, and from there to the south numbers of trees decline (Arroyo et al. 1995). This maximum in number of species is a product of the transition from the seasonal climate of central Chile to the non-seasonal climate of southern Chile (Arroyo et al., 1995), creating conditions favorable to the existence in this region of several forest types and their subtypes. 

Table 1. Numbers of woody species for the mediterranean and the three major temperate rainforest regions of Chile.

1: From Donoso (1982); 2: From Arroyo et al. (1995); 3: From Veblen et al. (1995).

 
It is worth mentioning that outside the temperate region of Chile there are some other tree species, such as those that grow in the Chilean dessert, north of the Mediterranean region, and others in the Juan Fernández island. These species are mentioned in Table 2 together with all species belonging to the forest types.

Table 2. Summary of precipitation values along the region of temperate forests of Chile.

1: Veblen et al., 1983; 2: Donoso, 1996; 3: Veblen and Alaback, 1995; 4: Pezoa, 2003.

 
Climate and Soil Variations in Chile´s Forest Regions

In general, Chile has increasing precipitation from north to south and from west to east (Table 3). However, topographic variations in the west-east direction distort the effects of the dominant westerly winds. In central-south Chile (32°-43°S), the Coastal Cordillera rarely exceeds 1,000 m in elevation, and on average has c. 600 m. To the east is the Andes Cordillera, with and average of 3,000 m in elevation in the central-south region and 1,000 in Tierra del Fuego.  In between there is a central depression which is in a rain-shadow, and this part of the west-east axis of Chile as well as the eastern slopes of the Coastal Cordillera are those with less precipitations in this region. Precipitations increase from 500-1,000 mm in the northern Mediterranean region to 4,000 mm or more at greater latitudes. Similarly, for a same latitude, precipitations in the western slopes of both Cordilleras can be twice as much as those of the central depression (Table 3, bottom of page).

Average annual temperatures decline at about one-half degree per latitudinal unit: Valparaiso (33°03’S) has 14.5°C, Puerto Montt (41°25’S) has 9.9°C, and Punta Arenas (53°00’S) 5.9°C (Pezoa, 2003, with data collected from the Chilean Army, the Institute of Geophysics and the Meteorological Department of Chile, among other sources).
  
The Coastal Cordillera is formed of old Paleozic and Precambrian rocks, and soils have developed in situ from metamorphic materials (granite and schists) (Veblen et al., 1996). It was not affected by the last glaciation. In the Andean Cordillera, soils have originated from andesitic and basaltic volcanic deposits of lava and ash. South of 35°S the foothills as formed by moraines from the last glaciation and fluvial and lacustrine sediments (Donoso, 1996, and references therein). Presently, the Andean Cordillera is covered with andesitic volcanic deposits of recent origin. The central depression, which was glaciated south of 38°S, is filled with quaternary glacial, fluvioglacial, aeolian, and alluvial deposits and volcanic ash (Veblen et al., 1996). Volcanic materials cover the Andean Cordillera, the Central Depression and up to 400-500 m asl in the eastern slopes of the Coastal Cordilleras (Veit and Garleff, 1995). These soils are in general more fertile than those of the upper and western slopes of the Coastal Cordillera, which are usually shallower, more acidic, and highly leached. 
 

Chilean Forest Types

Chilean forest types were defined by Donoso (1981), who reviewed several previous classifications of Chilean forests that had been either too general or incomplete. He classified Chilean forest types basically by: a) geographical distribution; b) environment; c) floristic composition and relative importance of the species; d) timber volumes and mean productivity. Most of the original work of Donoso (1981) was later written in Donoso (1993), which also describes temperate forest of Argentina. The description of forest types and subtypes that follows is based in these works, and summarized in Table 4. Other relevant references related with the ecology and dynamics of some of the major Chilean forests and species are Veblen et al. (1995) in relation to conifer species, and both Veblen et al. (1996) and Donoso (1996) in relation to Nothofagus species. 

Table 4. General description of the 12 Chilean forest types.

*It is estimated that there are 124 thousand palm trees, from an original population of 5 million trees (Gardner et al., 2006)

 
Sclerophyllous

This forest type includes several forest communities within the Mediterranean climate of Chile. The common characteristic of these communities is the dominance of sclerophyllous species. This forest type includes three forest subtypes:

1)     Espinal: corresponds to a savanna-like open forest dominated by Acacia caven, with 100 to 300 trees of this species per hectare. It is located in the piedmont of both Cordilleras, from the northern limit of the forest type to 37°S.
2)     Mixed Forests: a mixture of sclerophyllous species (P. boldus, Q. saponaria, L. caustica, Cryptocaria alba, Maytenus boaria, Schinus latifolius and Kageneckia oblonga) dominates intermediate elevations in the western slopes of both Cordilleras and the eastern slopes of the Coastal Cordillera, as well as lowlands of the central depression between 37° and 38°S.
 
Chilean Palm (Jubaea chilensis)

Although the original distribution of Jubea chilensis was from 30°40’ to 35°20’, this forest type is currently restricted to some valleys and piedmonts of the Coastal Cordillera, between 32°20 and 34°30’S. Geographically, this forest type is within the area of the sclerophyllous forest type, so it grows only within the Mediterranean climate but in western slopes and humid valleys. Thus, the main tree species associated to this forest type are those of the Sclerophyllous forest type, which have a greater or lower density according to the density of the palms. These palm trees can reach 120 cm in dbh and 20 m in height. Today, J. chilensis is the palm with the widest diameter in the world, although until circa 1.500 a.d., before extinction, the widest palm was in Easter Island, now part of the Chilean territory.
 
Roble (Nothofagus obliqua)-Hualo (N. glauca).     

This forest type also grows within the Mediterranean region, but in its most humid areas. It limits with the southern and altitudinal limits of the mixed Sclerophyllous forest type, which gradually changes into pure or mixed Nothofagus forests of N. obliqua and/or N. glauca, the species that give the name to the forest type. In the Coastal Cordillera, between 32°50 and 35°S, it only grows at few locations with high elevations (> 1.000 m); southward, it is present continuously above the Sclerophyllous forest type. In the Andean Cordillera it is present as scattered fragments above 1.000 m between 34°30’ and 35°S. From 35° to 36°50’ these forest grow continuously between 400 and 600 m of elevation. However, the lowest elevations where this forest type grows in both Cordilleras have been dramatically transformed into plantations of exotic species (mainly Pinus radiata and Eucalyptus species).   

This forest type has five forest subtypes, as follows:

1)     Coastal northern forests of N. obliqua and N. glauca, pure forests or either or both species in the highest peaks of the Coastal Cordillera, between 32°50’ and 35°S.
2)     Andean high-elevation N. obliqua forests, from 34°30’ to 38°20’, north from where N. dombeyi and/or N. pumilio become more important at high elevations.
3)     N. glauca Forests, in the gentle slopes of the Coastal Cordillera, above the Sclerophyllous forest type, and in the Andean Cordillera between the Sclerophyllous forest type at low elevations and the high-elevation N. obliqua subtype.
4)     Small N. alessandri forests, which corresponds to small stands within the Hualo forests, but just in the Coastal Cordillera. The classification of this as a forest subtype is due to the fragile conservation status of N. alessandri, of which there are only 350 ha remaining (Gardner et al., 2006).   
5)     Humid riparian forests, corresponding to dense forests in humid and deep river and stream valleys within the geographical distribution of this forest type, with species that are characteristic of southern latitudes, such as N. dombeyi, P. lingue, A. punctatum, D. winteri, L. apiculata and M. exssuca.
 
Cipres de la Cordillera (Austrocedrus chilensis) Forest Type. 

In spite of its name, this species is more common in Argentina than in Chile. In Chile this forest type is comprised of pure forests of this coniferous species or mixed forests with evergreen or deciduous Nothofagus species. It grows almost exclusively in the western slope of the Andean Cordillera from 34°45’ to 38°S, and then in the south, in the eastern slope of the Andean Cordillera between 42° and 44°S.  North of the northern limit of this forest type the species can be found as isolated trees in rocky areas above 900 m and up to 1.800 m at 32°30’S. Stands dominated by A. chilensis are inserted within other forest types (Roble-Hualo, Roble-Raulí-Coihue, Coihue-Raulí-Tepa, lenga, or Siempreverde), depending on the latitude.
 
Roble (N.obliqua)-Raulí (N. nervosa)-Coihue (N. dombeyi)

This forest type grows between 36°30’ and 40°30’ S., from 100 to 1.000 m, in the submediterranean and temperate oceanic climates. It is comprised of secondary or pure forests of the species N. obliqua, N. dombeyi, and/or N. nervosa.  It is a forest type of anthropogenic origin, since the secondary forests that characterize it did not exist before human disturbances. It is a forest type of a high economic relevance, since the species are highly valued and the forests quite easy to manage. Of these species, N. obliqua grows at lower elevations (< 500 m), N. nervosa at intermediate elevations (500 to 1.000 m), and N. dombeyi throughout, and even at higher elevations (1.400 m). This forest type has three subtypes:

1)     Secondary and pure forests, dominated by either one of the three Nothofagus or a mixture of some or all of them.
2)     Original Remnants, corresponding to original forests that used to dominate the landscape at low elevations in the central depression and the foothills of the Cordilleras. These forests have emergent trees of N. obliqua or N. dombeyi, with a canopy of L. sempervirens, A. punctatum and P. lingue. E. cordifolia and W. trichosperma can also occupy emergent positions.  
3)     High-graded Forests, a result of intense selective cuttings of Original Remnants, which can derive into a) a Chusquea-dominated cover that prevents tree regeneration; b) invasion of species of the Mirtaceae family or other shade-tolerant species that also prevent tree regeneration, and c) invasion of Nothofagus species, which would lead to secondary forests.
 
Coihue (N. dombeyi)-Raulí (N. nervosa) –Tepa (L.philippiana).

This forest type grows at mid elevations from 37° to 40°30’ S in the Andean Cordillera and from 38° to 40°30’ S in the eastern slopes of the Coastal Cordillera. It limits at its lower elevation with the Roble-Raulí-Coihue forest type. Where N. nervosa and/or N. dombeyi (see photo) have more than 50% of the individuals in an area or stand, then the forest belongs to the Coihue-Raulí-Tepa type. At its higher elevations in the Andes, the forest type ends with the altitudinal limit of N. nervosa and Lenga (N. pumilio) becomes dominant, from 1,000 to 1,300 m.; in the Coastal Cordillera the upper limit is the Evergreen or the Alerce Forest type, usually at elevations of 600-700 m. L. philippiana is always a main component species of this forests, but S. conspicua and D. diacanthoides are also generally present.
 
Evergreen

One main characteristic of this forest type is that it is only comprised of evergreen species, most broadleaved treesThis forest type grows between 40°30’ S in the Andean Cordillera, and between 38°30’ and 47° S in the Coastal Cordillera. In both Cordilleras it is dominant under 1.000 m, but north of 41°S, within the southern distribution of N. obliqua and N. nervosa, the Evergreen forest type usually has its lower elevation limit around 500 m. The southern limit of the distribution of this forest type is given by the increasing importance of N. betuloides, which defines another forest type. 
 
This is the richest forest type in Chile, and a forest stand is usually comprised of at 10 to 20 tree species. Although tree composition is similar within the Valdivian rainforests (through 43°S Lat.), the coastal forests usually lack Nothofagus due to the apparent absence of large-scale disturbances in the this region, as compared with the Andes that are constantly subjected to this type of disturbances that allow recruitment of the shade-intolerant N. dombeyi. This forest type has several subtypes, as follows:

1)     Ñadi, from 39°30’ S to 42°S in the Chiloé Island, along the central depression. These forests grow above a shallow soil with an impermeable hardpan, which determines a poor drainage during winter, allowing only flood-resistant species to grow, especially several Mirtaceae species, D. winteri and N. nitida.
2)     Coastal Olivillo, where olivillo (Aextoxicon punctatum) is dominant along the lower coastal mountains (< 300m) within the Valdivian rainforests, especially at elevations < 50 m. As a thermophyllous species, A. punctatum also forms pure forests in a narrow strip surrounding large lakes in the central depression, but geographically in this case these forests are within the Roble-Raulí-Coihue forest type.
3)     Evergreen with emergents, probably one of the most common formations within this forest type, where some or several of the tallest and also shade-intolerant species of the forest type emerge above the main canopy, namely Eucryphia cordifolia, W. trichosperma, or an evergreen Nothofagus.
4)     Evergreen dominated by shade-tolerant species, where the shade-intolerant species are nominal or absent, usually because of the lack of large-scale disturbances, and several successional, shade-tolerant tree species dominate uneven-aged stands, especially L. philippiana, S. conspicua, D. winteri, D. diacanthoides, G. avellana, and A. punctatum.
5)     Secondary canelo (D. winteri) forests, common in the landscape of southern Chile, especially in the Chiloe island, within the distribution of the Evergreen forest type, in flat or gentle-slope lands, were a forest has been cut and/or burnt. D. winteri secondary forests are unusually dense, with even more than 10.000 trees per acre when trees are pole sized. Mirtacea species are always present, N. nitida can become important associate in flat and poorly-drained lands, and E. cordifolia and Embothrium coccineum in well-drained soils. With time, D. winteri secondary forests become uneven-aged forests that belong either to the subtypes 3 or 4 described above.    
 
Lenga (N. pumilio).

N. pumilio and N. antartica are the two Chilean Nothofagus species with the longest distribution along Chile (36 to 55°S lat.), although the species are present almost exclusively in the Andean Cordillera. N. pumilio constitutes the timberline, always above 1,000 m, from its northern distribution through 45°S. Within this region, it limits with the Roble-Rauli-Coihue, Araucaria, Coihue-Rauli-Tepa, or  Evergreen forest types, depending on the latitude. To the south, N. pumilio becomes the dominant species in the entire landscape, except in the islands of the Archipielago (see Figure 1). In the Coastal Cordillera N. pumilio is only present in the locations of Nahuelbuta (38°S) and Pelada (40°S), at elevations above 1,000 m. asl.  The Lenga forest type has three subtypes, as follows:

1)     Stunted N. pumilio forests or Krummholz, where the restrictive environmental conditions where N. pumilio grows as the timberline in its northern distribution determines that it does not reach a tree-like form but rather a stunted, crawling shape. This subtype sometimes limits to lower elevations with the normal N. pumilio forests, another subtype.   
2)     Pure N. pumilio forests: this is the usual N. pumilio forest dominating most of continental landscape of Chile south of 47°. These are typically uneven-aged forests, but comprised by single small-sized even-aged stands.
3)     Mixed N. pumilio-N. dombeyi forest: refers to N. pumilio-N. dombeyi forests below elevations were N. pumilio grows as pure forests, especially between 37° and 40°30’ S, or to N. pumilio-N. betuloides forests south of this latitude, in transitional areas with the Coihue de Magallanes (N. betuloides) forest type.   
 
Coihue de Magallanes (N. betuloides).

This forest type grows from 47° to 55°30’, were the South American continent has its southern end, in the islands, archipielago, and coastal areas, limiting to the west with the Pacific Ocean and to the east with N. pumilio forests. In addition, it can be found in the Andean Cordillera south of 40°S in combination with N. pumilio, just below the timberline. Anyhow, the forest type is defined by the existence of more than 50% of N. betuloides trees in a forest stand. The species is also found at some high elevations of the Coastal Cordillera south of 40°, and in some parts of the Chiloe and other smaller islands, but always in relatively low numbers and within a different forest type.
 
The main associated species to N. betuloides from 47° south are D. winteri, M. magellanica and E. coccineum, although in very humid regions also P. uviferum becomes an important associate.
 
Araucaria (A. araucana).

This forest type grows in two clearly discontinuous regions. In the Coastal Cordillera it is restricted mainly to the Nahuelbuta Cordillera (37°40’ to 38°40’S), between 1,000 and 1,400 m asl. In the Andean Cordillera it grows between 900 and 1,700 m from 37°27 to 40°48’ S. A. araucana is commonly associated with N. dombeyi, N. pumilio, N. antartica, and also with N. obliqua at the lower elevations of the forest type. However, most typically A. araucana is mixed with N. pumilio and/or N. dombeyi. Regeneration of A. araucana is good throughout its distribution.
 
Alerce (Fitzroya cuppressoides).

F. cuppressoides is a magnificent tree not only because of its dimensions (it can reach up to 5 m in diameter and more than 50 m in height), but also for being the second longest living species, with a record of at least 3,600 yrs (Lara and Villalba, 1993). This forest type has a discontinued distribution from 39°50’ to 43°30’S. In the Costal Cordillera it grows from Valdivia (39°50’S) to 42° in the Chiloe island, along high-elevation areas, i.e. above 700 m, although it can be found in transition with the Evergreen or the Coihue-Rauli-Tepa forest types, depending on latitude. In the Andes, F. cuppressoides grows from 40° to 43°30’S, from low elevations to 1,200 m asl. Actually, in the past F. cuppressoides had a continuous distribution from the central depression towards the Andes, when it covered most of the area between 41° and 42° . Nowadays there are only some relicts of this past distribution in the central depression (Fraver et al., 1999).       
 
The main associated species to F. cuppressoides include N. betuloides and D. winteri in the Coastal Cordillera, although N. nitida, P. nubigena, W. trichosperma, and P. uviferum can also be important.  In the Andean Cordillera F. cuppressoides grows with the same species, in addition to L. philippiana and E. cordifolia, although this depends on elevation and latitude.  In the few relicts in the central depression the main accompanying species are those of the Ñadi subtype of the Evergreen Forest Type. There are three forest subtypes:

1)     Poorly drained lowlands, which correspond to the F. cuppressoides forests that used to cover the central depression, on shallow, poorly-drained soils on an impermeable hardpan. Growth is relatively better than in the Cordilleras, but the species has not been able to regenerate following its destruction during the middle part of the XIX Century.
2)     Andean Subtype, at different elevations along more than 300 km in the Andean Cordillera, with varying associate species, but characteristically with poor regeneration.
3)     Coastal Subtype, over the poor old, leached and acidic soils at high elevations in the Coastal Cordillera, usually associated to species that have a less vigorous regeneration than in the other subtypes, which may be the reason why F. cuppressoides has a more successful regeneration in this subtype.
 
Ciprés de las Guaitecas (P. uviferum).

This forest type grows from 39°50’ in both Cordilleras and the central depression, but in its northern distribution it is usually present as small discrete stands in the so-called “Mallines” that correspond to concave areas were small stream water is temporally stored. However, the main distribution of this forest type is in flat lands at mid and high elevations of the Costal Cordillera of the Chiloe Island, and along the islands of the Archipielago through 54°20’S.  
 
Species associated to P. uviferum do not vary much along its distribution, which is due to the restrictive conditions where this species grows. In the northern part of the distribution the main tree associates are N. nitida and P. nubigena; in the southern part N. betuloides and D. winteri are more common companions. Tepualia stipularis is common throughout.    
 
Forest Conservation and Management

Chile has two forest subsectors, one with 13,4 million ha of native forests, and another comprised by more than 2 million ha of plantations of exotic species, particularly Pinus radiata, Eucalyptus nitens and E. globulus. Most of the plantation area has been established during the last three decades by the two large Chilean forest complexes. Plantations have been subsidized, established mostly from the central depression through 500 m asl along the range from 35° to 41°S, and therefore most of the  200.000 ha of native forests that they have replaced (Lara et al., 1995) have been located in regions of high biodiversity and fragility due to their proximity to very populated areas. At present, Chile has two tree species in a critically endangered state of conservation (N. alessandri and P. punctata), three species in an endanged condition (F. cupressoides, B. berteroana, and G. queule), and seven species in a vulnerable state of conservation (A. araucana, A chilensis, P. andina, P. salignus, P. uviferum, B. miersii and N. glauca, in addition to the Chilean palm J. chilensis) (Gardner et al., 2006). Most of these species are poorly protected in the System of National Parks and Reserves, which has more than 90% of its land south of 43°S. The area between 36° and 41°, which has the highest plant and tree endemism, richness, and biodiversity, is largely outside of the national parks and reserves of Chile (Armesto et al., 1998).
 
Chile still has large tracts of virgin and/or unpolluted forests, providing an excellent opportunity to monitor pre-industrial patterns and processes of temperate forests. Chilean forests, with their high productivity and biodiversity, in addition to their uniqueness, are increasingly gaining national and international relevance, and urgently need good policies and legislation to properly conserve and manage them. Fortunately, since the 1980’s there has been a great deal of research on issues of conservation and management of the native forests, which has given rise to several books about ecology and dynamics of these forests, as well as to one book on silviculture (Donoso and Lara, 1999). There is now some consensus in that conservation of Chilean native forests is dependent on improving the representation of the most threatened forest ecosystems in national parks and reserves, but also in encouraging restoration and management of forests outside protected areas. Management has its greater potential in secondary forests of Nothofagus species or of D. winteri, and also in the N. pumilio forest type, since these forests are quite simple in composition and structure.  Long-term management of secondary forests would likely require some sort of even-aged silviculture, and that for N. pumilio forests either even- or uneven-aged approaches. Uneven-aged management can also be necessary to implement in the Evergreen forest type due to the current demand and quality of many shade-tolerant species in these forests, in addition to concerns about aesthetics and biodiversity, among other issues. Implementation of these approaches to management is still rare, and until now it is estimated that no more than 5-25% of harvested native forests are conducted with silvicultural prescriptions (Lara et al., 1995). A large forest project that promised to manage N. pumilio forests in a sustainable manner in Tierra del Fuego (Picket, 1996) would have been an opportunity for large-scale management of native forests, but eventually this project was never implemented. Good large management experiences are still lacking, while mismanagement continues to dominate, affecting productivity and conservation of the native forests. A project of law is being discussed in the congress since more than a decade. It would subsidize management and restoration of native forests, as a means to protect native forests and encourage management among landowners.
 
Another alternative to conserve and manage native species or forests is through plantations. Nothofagus plantations are the most promising so far. They can have great growth rates and provide lucrative financial returns (Cubbage at al., In Press), which could be slightly lower than those from plantations of Pinus radiata from a timber perspective, but increasingly attractive if in addition to Nothofagus timber there can be other returns from timber of accompanying species, as well as from enhanced ecosystem services of native forests (Nahuelhual et al., In Press).           

References

Armesto, J.J.,  Lobos, P.L and M.K. Arroyo, M.K..           1995. Los bosques templados del sur       de Chile y Argentina: una isla biogeográfica. In Ecología de los bosques nativos de Chile. Eds. J.J. Armesto, C. Villagrán and M. K.Arroyo. Santiago,           Chile: Ed. Universitaria, 1995. pp. 23-28.

Armesto, J.J., Rozzi, R., Smith-Ramirez, C., and Arroyo, M.K. Conservation targets in                      South American Temperate Forests. Science. 282 (1998): 1271-1272. 

Arroyo, M.K., L. Cavieres, A. Peñaloza, M. Riveros and A.M. Faggi. Relaciones        fitogeográficas y patrones regionales de riqueza de especies en la flora del bosque      lluvioso templado de sudamerica. In Ecología de los bosques nativos de Chile.          Eds. J.J. Armesto, C. Villagrán and M. K.Arroyo. Santiago,            Chile: Ed.                               Universitaria, 1995. pp. 71-99.

Barnes, B.V., D.R. Zak, S.R. Denton, and S.H. Spurr. 1999. Forest Ecology. New York:       John Wiley & Sons, 1999.

Cubbage, F, Mac Donagh, P., Sawinski Júnior, J., Rubilar, R., Donoso, P., Ferreira,             A., Hoeflich, V., Morales, V., Ferreira, G., Balmelli, G., Siry, J., Báez, M. and J. Alvarez. Timber Investment Returns for Selected Plantations and Native Forests               in South America and the Southern United States. New Forest, In Press.

Donoso, C. 1981. Tipos forestales de los bosques nativos de Chile. Documento de             trabajo N^o 38. Investigación y Desarrollo Forestal (CONAF/PNUD-FAO)         (Publicación FAO Chile).

Donoso, C. Estructura, Variación y Dinámica de Bosques Templados de Chile y   Argentina. Ecología Forestal. Santiago (Chile): Universitaria, 1993.

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